Adverbs, interjections and ideophones
Setswana words can be classified into eight-word categories. The adverb, interjection and ideophone are three of these word categories (Van Wyk, 1966: 251-257). To follow, a brief characterisation of the adverb, interjection and ideophone is presented. The internal syntax of adverb phrases, interjection phrases and ideophone phrases is presented where the focus is on the possible constituents of these phrases. The use of these phrases in larger constructions is the focus of its external syntax.
Adverbs and adverb phrases
An adverb is a word which is used to modify the meaning of a verb with regards to manner and time. A distinction is drawn between basic (primitive) adverbs and derived adverbs.
The basic adverbs in Setswana are not derived from other word categories. Basic adverbs such as bobe ‘frequently, eagerly’, jalo ‘so, in this way, thus’, thata ‘a lot, very much, hard’ and ruri ‘really, truly’ are adverbs of manner (Cole, 1955: 362-365). Basic adverbs such as jaanong ‘now’, kgalê ‘long ago’ and phakêla ‘early’ are temporal adverbs (Cole, 1955: 358-359).
Derived adverbs are derived from other word categories. Some of these adverbs are characterised by the adverbial prefix ga- or se-. These adverbial prefixes can be prefixed to adjective roots. Derived adverbs such as gabêdi ‘twice’, gagolo ‘greatly, especially, essentially’, gangwê ‘once, suddenly’, gantsi ‘many times, often’ and sentle ‘nicely’ are adverbs of manner.
The internal structure of the adverb phrase
The adverb phrase (ADVP) consists of only an adverb. In (1) the ADVP consists of the adverb thata ‘hard’.
| re dira thata. |
| re -dir -a thata |
| AgrSubjP1pl-work-VEnd Adv |
| We are working hard. |
Syntactic functions of the adverb phrase
The external syntax of an ADVP is concerned with the use and function of an ADVP in larger constructions. To follow an exposition is presented of two possible functions the ADVP may have.
Adjunct
An ADVP can function as the adjunct (descriptive) in a sentence (2). An adjunct is a phrase which is used to provide additional, though not essential, information (Louwrens, 1994: 4). The ADVP is used as an optional constituent as it modifies a verb phrase regarding the time at which the action is executed or the manner in which the action is executed. In (2) the ADVP consists of the adverb kgantêlê ‘in a moment’ and it is used as an optional constituent in the sentence that describes the verb ke tla go thusa ‘I shall help you’.
| Ke tla-go thusa kgantêlê. |
| ke -tla -go -thus-a kgantêlê |
| AgrSubjP1sg-FutPre-AgrObjP2sg-help-VEnd Adv |
| I shall help you in a moment. |
Complement
To form a valid structure, the head word is syntactically and semantically dependent on a complementary phrase (Krüger, 2013a: 38).
An ADVP can function as a complement of an identifying copulative verb, a describing copulative verb and a possessive particle.
Complement of identifying copulative verb
An identifying copulative verb can be followed by an ADVP as complement. The ADVP in (3) consists of the adverb jalo ‘so’ (cf. Cole, 1955: 315).
| Ke jalo. |
| ke jalo |
| IdCopV Adv |
| It is so. |
Complement of a describing copulative verb
A describing copulative verb can be followed by an ADVP as complement. The ADVP in (4) is kae? ‘where?’ (cf. : Cole, 1955: 324-325; Krüger, 2013b: 163-164).
| O kae? |
| o kae |
| DesCopVP2sg Adv |
| Where are you? |
Complement of possessive particle
A possessive particle can be followed by an ADVP as complement. The ADVP in (5) is gompiêno ‘today’ and it is the complement of the possessive particle ba.
| bana ba gompiêno |
| ba -ana ba gompiêno |
| NPre2-child PossPart2 Adv |
| today’s children (children of nowadays) |
Modifier
A modifier is a phrase which is used to provide additional, though not essential, information (cf. Louwrens, 1994: 108-109)
A noun, a locative noun and a personal pronoun can be modified with an ADVP.
Noun modified with an adverb
A noun can be modified with an ADVP. The ADVP in (6) consists of the adverb tota ‘real’.
| motse tota |
| mo -tse tota |
| NPre3-village Adv |
| real village, real home |
Locative noun modified with an adverb
A locative noun can be modified with an ADVP. The ADVP in (7) consists of the adverb tota ‘real’.
| motsêng tota |
| mo -tse -ing tota |
| NPre3-village-LocSuf Adv |
| in the real village, at the real home |
Personal pronoun modified with an adverb
A personal pronoun can be followed by an ADVP as modifier. The ADVP in (8) consists of the adverb fela ‘only’.
| nna fela |
| nna fela |
| PersProP1sg Adv |
| only me, only I |
Interjections and interjection phrases
The interjection is an interposing remark that is used to express reactions and emotions such as joy, approval, disapproval, sorrow, distress, fear, disgust, agreement, disagreement, surprise, disbelief, and to draw attention or to call or urge on animals. Examples of interjections are:
- Eê! ‘Yes!’
- Nnyaa! ‘No!’
- Hêêla! ‘Hey!’
- Ijôô ‘Expressing fear, pain, distress’
- Ayê! ‘Used in driving sheep’
The internal structure of the interjection phrase
The interjection phrase (INTERJP) consists of only an interjection (Berg, 2018: 116).
Syntactic function of the interjection phrase
The external syntax of an INTERJP is concerned with the use and function of an INTERJP in a larger construction. The INTERJP is a modifier in a verb phrase and provides additional, though not essential, information. This phrase functions as an adjunct (Berg, 2018: 139). In (9) the interjection heela ‘hey’ is used to draw attention to the action mentioned in the verb nthuse ‘help me’.
| Heela, nthuse tlhe! |
| Heela ni -thus-e tlhe |
| Interj AgrObjP1sg-help-VEnd Interj |
| Hey, please help me! |
Ideophones and ideophone phrases
An ideophone is a highly expressive word that is often used for sound symbolism regarding colour, sound, smell, taste, feeling, manner, appearance, state, action or intensity (Louwrens, 1991: 79). Examples of ideophones are:
- kgô ‘coming abruptly to a stop when running’
- gwaa ‘heavy rainfall’
- phatsi ‘of shing or glittering’
- gasaa ‘scattering’
- kôkôkô ‘knocking or rapping’
The internal structure of the ideophone phrase
The ideophone phrase (IDEOP) consists of only an ideophone (Berg, 2018: 116).
Syntactic functions of the ideophone phrase
The external syntax of an IDEOP is concerned with the use and function of an IDEOP in a larger construction (Berg, 2018: 139). The IDEOP in Setswana functions as an adjunct or as a complement of the verb -re ‘say, mean’ (Ras, 1991: 108-109).
Adjunct
The ideophone tu in (10) enhances the meaning of ‘quiet’ in the verb ba didimala ‘they kept quiet’ to ‘absolutely quiet’ and functions as an adjunct in the sentence.
| Ba didimala tu. |
| ba -didimal-a tu |
| AgrSubj2-quiet -VEnd Ideo |
| They kept absolutely quiet. |
Complement
An IDEOP can also function as a complement of the verb -re ‘say, mean’ (Ras, 1991: 111). The sentence in (11) contains a main clause a didimala ‘he kept quiet’ as well as a subordinate clause a re tuu ‘he said nothing’. The ideophone tuu in this subordinate clause is a complement of the verb a re ‘he says’.
| A didimala a re tuu. |
| a -didimal-a a -r -e tuu |
| AgrSubj1-quiet -VEnd AgrSubj1-say-VEnd Ideo |
| He kept quit and said absolutely nothing. |
References
Berg, A. (2018) Computational syntactic analysis of Setswana. Doctoral Thesis. North-West University, Potchefstroom.
Cole, D. T. (1955) An introduction to Tswana grammar. Cape Town: Longman.
Krüger, C. J. H. (2013a) Setswana syntax: a survey of word group structures. Vol 1. München: Lincom.
Krüger, C. J. H. (2013b) Setswana syntax: a survey of word group structures. Vol 2. München: Lincom.
Louwrens. L. J. (1994) Dictionary of Northern Sotho grammatical terms. Pretoria: Via Afrika.
Ras, W. A. P. (1991) Die ideofoon in Tswana. Master’s Dissertation. North-West University (Potchefstroom University for Higher Education), Potchefstroom.
Van Wyk, E. B. (1966) ‘The word classes of Northern Sotho’. Lingua. 17(2): 230–261.
