The simple sentence

Simple, complex and compound sentences are distinguished in Setswana. The distinction between these types of sentences is based on the grammatical structure or composition of the sentences because each type of sentence has a specific clausal structure (Louwrens, 1994: 178). Independent and dependent clauses are distinguished. The independent clause is a main clause that functions on its own, as it does not depend on another clause (Louwrens, 1994: 84). The dependent clause is a subordinate clause, as it is dependent on an independent clause for its existence (Louwrens, 1994: 28).

The simple sentence can consist of a subject and a verbal element. This verbal element includes a main verb, an identifying copulative verb, a describing copulative verb, an associative copulative verb or an auxiliary verb. Each one of these verbs allow the inclusion of specific constituents such as an indirect object, a direct object, an oblique, a complement and adjuncts. For example, the simple sentence in (1) consists of only one independent clause and the immediate constituents are the noun phrase (NP) bana ‘children’ (the subject) and die verb phrase (VP) ba bua Setswana ‘they are speaking Setswana’. This VP consists of the main verb ba bua ‘they are speaking’ and the NP (the object) Setswana.

The simple sentence can appear in the indicative, consecutive, imperative or habitual mood. The verb in a simple sentence can express grammatical features such as tense, aspect, mood and polarity (expression of the positive or negative).

To follow a brief exposition of the independent moods is presented and it is followed by an exposition of the constituents, order, agreement and grammatical functions of the constituents in a simple sentence.

Mood is a form which a verb may assume depending on the function and meaning it has in a sentence (Louwrens, 1994: 111-113; Krüger, 2013b: 111)

The indicative mood

The indicative mood expresses factual statements or declarative sentences, and the inclusion of a subject agreement morpheme is required in the morphological structure of the verb (Louwrens, 1994: 84-85).

The verb o thusa ‘she is helping’ in (2) includes the subject agreement morpheme o of noun class 1 and it agrees with the noun mosadi ‘woman’.

The consecutive mood

The consecutive mood indicates that an action follows another action in time. It occurs in temporal succession to a previous action and thus conveys a subsequent action (Louwrens, 1994: 36). Although the action in the consecutive mood is chronologically dependent on previous actions, it does not imply syntactic dependence and a simple sentence therefor may appear in the consecutive mood. The consecutive mood is marked morphologically in the verbal structure by including a consecutive subject agreement morpheme.

The verb a thusa ‘she then helped’ in (3) includes the consecutive subject agreement morpheme a of noun class 1 and it agrees with the noun mosadi ‘woman’.

The imperative mood

The imperative mood expresses a command, an order or a warning to the second person, singular or plural. A verb in the imperative mood can only consist of the verbal root and a verb ending to indicate a command in the singular but may also include morphemes such as a negative morpheme, a subject agreement morpheme and an object agreement morpheme and a suffix indicating a command in the plural (cf. Krüger, 2013b: 112-117)

The verb tsamaya ‘go’ in (4) morphologically consists of the verb root tsamay- and the verbal ending -a.

The verb mo thuse ‘help him’ in (5) includes the object morpheme mo of class 1.

The habitual mood

The habitual mood expresses sequential actions, which are performed as a habit (6). There are various ways of marking the habitual mood. Verbs in the habitual mood exhibit the verbal ending -e in the positive and negative (cf. Krüger, 2013b: 119-121)

Verbs in the habitual mood frequently appear with the auxiliary verb tle (also tla, etle, etla) indicating a meaning of usually or frequently or a matter of habit or regular custom (7) (Cole, 1955: 304).

The constituent structure of a simple sentence consists of an NP as the first constituent and a VP as second constituent. The rule representing this structure is S → NP VP (DALL, 2000: 3).

The first constituent

The NP (8) as the first constituent functions as the subject in the sentence and can be replaced by any phrase that can perform a subject grammatical function (DALL 2000: 5). The subject is a grammatical function of a phrase which denotes the person or thing that is responsible for executing or helping to execute the action which is expressed by the verb (Louwrens, 1994: 174-175; Krüger, 2013a: 32).

A pronoun phrase (PROP) (9), a possessive particle phrase (POSSPARTP) (10) or a qualificative particle phrase (QUALPARTP) (11) can all replace an NP to function as a subject in a sentence.

In (8) the NP bana ‘children’ is the first constituent in the sentence and it functions as the subject in the sentence.

Noun phrase as subject

The NP in (8) consists of the noun bana ‘children’.

Pronoun phrase as subject

The PROP in (9) consists of the inclusive quantitative pronoun bôtlhê ‘all of them’.

Possessive particle phrase as subject

The PossPart in (10) consists of the possessive particle ba ‘of’ and the possessive pronoun me ‘mine’.

Qualificative particle phrase as subject

The QualPart in (11) consists of the qualificative particle ba ‘which are’ and the adjective bangwe ‘some’.

Verb phrae with a main verb

The subject is the first constituent in the simple sentences whereas the second constituent is a VP. This VP can include a main verb, an identifying copulative verb, a describing copulative verb, an associative copulative verb or an auxiliary verb.

Minimal structure

The VP with a main verb (VPMAIN) can be structured with only a main verb. For example, in (12) the VPMAIN consists of only the main verb ba a bua ‘they are speaking’. In this instance the VPMAIN has a minimal structure (cf. Berg, 2018: 117-118).

Complex structure

The VPMAIN can also include phrases that function as an indirect object, a direct object, an oblique or an adjunct. The inclusion of an indirect object, a direct object or an oblique is permitted by the meaning, tense and mood of the verb (cf. Berg 2018: 67-92, 127-135).

• Inclusion of direct object

  An NP, PROP, POSSPARTP or QUALPARTP can all perform the grammatical function of direct object. The direct object is directly affected by the process or action expressed by a transitive verb) (cf. Krüger, 2013a: 34-35; Louwrens, 1994: 55; Berg, 2018: 128).

  The direct object in (13) is the NP dijô ‘food’.

  Example 13

  Basadi ba reka dijô.

  ba- sadi ba- rek-a di- j- ô

  NPre2-woman AgrSubj2-buy-VEnd NPre10-eat-DevSuf

  The women buy food.

• Inclusion of an indirect object and a direct object

  A main verb can be followed by an indirect object and a direct object. An NP, PROP, POSSPARTP or QUALPARTP can perform these grammatical functions. The indirect object is indirectly affected by the process or action expressed by a transitive verb (cf. Krüger, 2013a: 35; Krüger, 2013b: 63-81; Louwrens, 1994: 55; Berg, 2018: 130-134).

  In (14) the indirect object is the NP bana ‘children’ and the direct object is the NP dijô ‘food’.

  Example 14

  Basadi ba rekela bana dijô.

  ba- sadi ba- rek-el- a ba- ana di- j- ô

  NPre2-woman AgrSubj2-buy-ApplSuf-VEnd NPre2-child NPre10-eat-DevSuf

  The women buy food for the children.

• Inclusion of an oblique

  An oblique is an obligatory constituent which is semantically implicit (cf. Bresnan, et al., 2016: 97, 99; Falk, 2001: 206).

  Based on the meaning of the main verb it is sometimes compulsory that this verb is followed by a locative phrase ((15) to (17)) or an associative particle phrase (18). These phrases functions as an oblique. An oblique can therefore be divided in a locative oblique and an associative oblique (Berg, 2018: 129-130).

  The locative particle phrase (LOCPARTP) kwa toropong ‘to town’ in (15) is an obligatory constituent as the meaning of the verb re ya ‘we go’ necessitates the inclusion of a locative phrase.

  Example 15

  Rona re ya kwa toropong.

  rona re- y- a kwa (ne-)- toropo-ing

  PersProP1pl AgrSubj2-go-VEnd LocPart NPre10-town- LocSuf

  We go to town.

  The LOCPARTP mo kgetsing ‘in the bag’ in (16) is an obligatory constituent as the meaning of the verb o tsenya ‘she puts in’ necessitates the inclusion of a direct object and a locative phrase in the sentence (Berg, 2018: 132-133).

  Example 16

  Mosadi o tsenya buka mo kgetsing.

  mo- sadi o- tsen- y- a (ne)- buka mo (ne)- kgetsi-ing

  NPre1-woman AgrSubj1-enter-CausSuf-VEnd NPre9-book LocPart NPre9-bag- LocSuf

  The woman puts the book in the bag.

  The LOCPARTP mo bankeng ‘in the bank’ in (17) is an obligatory constituent as the meaning of the verb o tsenyetsa ‘she deposits for’ necessitates the inclusion of an indirect object, a direct object, and a locative phrase in the sentence (Berg, 2018: 132-133).

  Example 17

  Rre o tsenyetsa mme madi mo bankeng

  (-)- rre o- tsen- is- el- a (-)- mme ma- di mo (ne)- banka-ing

  NPre1a-father AgrSubj1a-enter-CausSuf-ApplSuf-VEnd NPre1a-mother NPre6-money LocPart NPre10-bank- LocSuf

  Father deposits money in the bank for mother.

  The ASSPARTP le rona ‘with us’ in (18) is an obligatory constituent as the meaning of the verb ba dumelana ‘they agree’ necessitates the inclusion of a locative phrase.

  Example 18

  Bone ba dumelana le rona.

  bone ba- dumel-an- a le rona

  AbsPro2 AgrSubj2-agree- RecSuf-VEnd AssPart PersProP1pl

  They agree with us.

• Inclusion of adjuncts

  Phrases that refer to time, locality, manner, instrument and association or an interjection phrase (INTERJP) or an ideophone phrase (IDEOP) can also be included in the VPMAIN. These phrases provide additional, though not essential, information and function as adjuncts in the VPMAIN. One (19) or more than one adjunct (20) can be included in the VPMAIN (cv. Krüger, 2013b: 82-94; Berg, 2018: 139-144).

  The instrumental particle phrase (INSTRPARTP) ka karata ‘with a card’ in (19) functions as an adjunct in the sentence.

  Example 19

  Mosadi o duela ditlhako ka karata.

  mo- sadi o- duel-a di- tlhako ka (ne)- karata

  NPre1-woman AgrSubj1-pay- VEnd NPre10-shoe InstrPart NPre9-card

  The woman pays the shoes with a card.

  In (20) the adjuncts are the INSTRPARTP ka karata ‘with a card’ and the adverb phrase (ADVP) jaanong ‘now’.

  Example 20

  Mosadi o duela ditlhako ka karata jaanong.

  mo- sadi o- duel-a di- tlhako ka (ne)- karata jaanong

  NPre1-woman AgrSubj1-pay- VEnd NPre10-shoe InstrPart NPre9-card Adv

  The woman now pays the shoes with/by a card.

  The basic position of the adjuncts indicating locality, time, manner, instrument and association as well as the IDEOP is usually at the end of a sentence. The order in which adjuncts occur is mostly free although Cole (1955: 452) mentions that a phrase that indicates manner usually precedes phrases that indicate locality and time, while phrases that indicate locality and manner can be used interchangeably. The INTERJP usually occurs at the beginning of a sentence.

• Adjuncts indicating time

  Some NPs and AdvPs or a temporal particle phrase (TempPartP) or a locative particle phrase (LOCPARTP) which include the locative particle mo ‘in’ can be included as adjuncts in sentences. These adjuncts indicate the time as well as the duration and frequency of an action (Le Roux, 2007: 93). For example, in (21) the LOCPARTP mo mosong ‘in the morning’ indicates when the action of the verb ba taboga ‘they run’ is executed.

  Example 21

  Bana ba taboga mo mosong.

  ba- ana ba- tabog-a mo mo- so- ng

  NPre2-child AgrSubj2-run- VEnd LocPart NPre2-morning-LocSuf

  The children run in the morning.

• Adjuncts indicating locality

  A locative class noun phrase (LOCCLNP), AdvP, possessive particle phrase (POSSPARTP), or LOCPARTP expresses the place, position, direction or distance where an action is performed. A PROP that indicates locality is structured with an absolute, demonstrative, inclusive quantitative, exclusive quantitative, separative quantitative or communal possessive pronoun of noun classes 16-20. In (22) the LOCPARTP mo bankeng ‘in the bank’ indicates the locality of the action mentioned in the verb ba dira ‘they work’.

  Example 22

  Ba dira mo bankeng.

  ba- dir- a mo (ne)- banka-ing

  AgrsSubj2-work-VEnd LocPart NPre9-bank- LocSuf

  They work in the bank.

• Adjuncts indicating manner

  Phrases such as an ADVP, an INSTRPARTP or a comparative particle phrase (COMPPARTP) indicate the manner in which an action or process is carried out (cf. Cole, 1955: 369; Louwrens, 1994: 101-102; Le Roux, 2007: 95).

  In (23) the adjunct is the AdvP thata ‘hard’.

  Example 23

  Ba dira thata.

  ba- dir- a thata

  AgrSubj2-work-VEnd Adv

  They work hard.

• Adjuncts indicating instrument

  The INSTRPARTP is an adjunct that expresses the instrument by which an action can be accomplished (Le Roux, 2007: 96). For example, in (24) the InstrPartP ka karata ‘with the card’ functions as an adjunct in the sentence.

  Example 24

  Ene o duela ka karata.

  ene o- duel-a ka (ne)- karata

  AbsPro1 AgrSubj1-pay- VEnd InstrPart NPre9-card

  She pays with a card. / He pays with a card.

• Adjuncts indicating association

  In a sentence, specific phrases can indicate a certain type of association expressing meanings such as ‘with whom’, ‘by whom’ or ‘similar to (like)’. An associative particle phrase (AssPartP) indicates ‘with whom’ the action of the verb is executed, the COMPPARTP indicates a similarity, while the agentative particle phrase (AGPARTP) is included in passive sentences to indicate ‘by whom’. In (25), the AssPartP le nna ‘with me’ functions as an adjunct (cf. Louwrens, 1994: 16; Le Roux, 2007: 97, 122).

  Example 25

  Ba tla tsamaya le nna.

  ba- tla- tsamay-a le nna

  AgrSubj2-FutPre-walk- VEnd AssPart PersProP1sg

  They will go with me.

• The ideophone phrase as adjunct

  The ideophone phrase (IDEOP) tu in (26) enhances the meaning of ‘quiet’ in the verb ba didimala ‘they kept quiet’ to ‘absolutely quiet’ and functions as an adjunct in the sentence.

  Example 26

  Ba didimala tu.

  ba- didimal-a tu

  AgrSubj2-quiet- VEnd Ideo

  They kept absolutely quiet.

• The interjection phrase as adjunct

  In (27) the interjection phrase (INTERJP) consists of the interjection heei ‘hey’ and it is used to draw attention to the action mentioned in the verb nthuse ‘help me’. The INTRJP in this sentence functions as an adjunct.

  Example 27

  Heei, nthuse!

  heei ni- thus-e

  Interj AgrObjP1sg-help-VEnd

  Hey, help me!

Minimal structure

The VP with an identifying copulative verb (VPIDCOP) is constructed with an identifying copulative verb as the head (introductory member) and it is followed by specific phrases that function as complements. These complements have specific phrase structures. The identifying copulative verb and the complement constitutes a minimal phrasal structure. This minimal structure also represents the minimal syntactic structure of a sentence. The introductory member is syntactically dependent and must compulsory be followed by a complement.

The identifying copulative verb can be followed by an NP (33), a PROP (34), a POSSPARTP (35), a QUALPARTP (36), an ADVP (37) or a LOCPARTP (38).

Inclusion of adjuncts

As is the case with the inclusion of adjuncts in the VPMAIN one or more than one phrase that refer to time, locality, manner, instrument and association and an IDEOP or INTERJP can be included in the VPIDCOP. In (39) a LOCPARTP is included as an adjunct. The basic position regarding the adjuncts in the VPMAIN applies to the VPIDCOP.

Minimal structure

The VP with a describing copulative verb (VPDESCOP) is constructed with a describing copulative verb as head (introductory member) and it is followed by specific phrases that function as complements. These complements have specific phrase structures. The describing copulative verb and these phrases constitute a minimal phrasal structure. This minimal structure also represents the minimal syntactic structure of a sentence. The describing copulative verb resembles the subject agreement morphemes of the noun classes as well as that of the personal pronoun in the present tense of the indicative mood. They display agreement according to the noun class as well as person and number (cf. Cole, 1955: 321-329; Krüger, 2013b: 156-177; Berg, 2018: 93-94, 118-119, 136-138)

The describing copulative verb can be followed by an adjective (40), NP (41), LOCPARTP (42), a LOCCLNP (43), an ADVP (44) or a POSSPARTP (45). If a describing copulative verb is followed by a PROP, the PROP can only consist of an inclusive (46) or exclusive (47) quantitative pronoun. These pronouns agree with the class or person and number of the preceding describing copulative verb.

Inclusion of adjuncts

As is the case with the inclusion of adjuncts in the VPMAIN and VPIDCOP one or more than one phrase that refer to time, locality, manner, instrument and association and an IDEOP or INTERJP can be included in the VPDESCOP. In (48) an ADVP is included as an adjunct. The basic position regarding the adjuncts in the VPMAIN and VPIDCOP applies to the VPDESCOP.

Minimal structure

The VP with an associative copulative verb (VPASSCOP) is constructed with an associative copulative verb as head (introductory member) followed by a complement. This complement involves specific phrases where the use of a specific phrase is determined by the polarity of the associative copulative verb. The associative copulative verb and the phrases used in the positive and negative constitute the minimal phrasal structure of this VP. This minimal structure also represents the minimal syntactic structure of such a sentence (cf. Krüger, 2013b: 178-190; Berg, 2018: 93-94, 119-120, 136-138).

In a VPASSCOP the associative copulative verb agrees with the subject regarding class or person, and number. This agreement is established by the subject agreement morpheme. If the subject agreement morpheme go of the locative class nouns (classes 16-20) is included in the morphological structure of an associative copulative verb “there is an optional deletion of the associative particle le and the copulative verb -na.” (Krüger, 2013b: 180). For example, go na le batho ‘there are people’ can also have a valid syntactic structure go batho ‘there are people’. The negative of these phrases are ga go na batho ‘there are no people’ would and ga go batho ‘there are no people’.

• Positive polarity

  The VPASSCOP is structured with the associative copulative verb and a succeeding ASSPARTP in the positive. The AsspartP always has the associative particle le as head and has valence for various types of phrases as complement (an exposition of these complement types this is presented in the Topic on Particles and particle phrases.)

  In (49) the associative copulative verb ba na ‘they have’ is in the positive and it is therefore followed by the ASsPartP le dijô ‘with food’.

  Example 44

  Ba na le dijô

  ba- na le di- j- ô

  AgrSubj2-AssCopV AssPart NPre10-eat-DevSuf

  They have food.

• Negative polarity

  If the associative copulative verb in the VPASSCOP has negative polarity it is structured with the associative copulative verb and a phrase that does not include the associative particle le (Cole, 1955: 332). Therefore, the succeeding phrases can be an NP (50), a PROP (51), a POSSPARTP (52) or a QUALPARTP (53).

  Example 45

  Ga ba na dijô.

  ga- ba- na di- j- ô

  NegPre-AgrSubj2-AssCopV NPre10-eat-DevSuf

  They do not have food.

  Example 46

  Ga ba na tsônê.

  ga- ba- na tsônê

  NegPre-AgrSubj2-AssCopV AbsPro10

  They do not have it (They do not have them.)

  Example 47

  Ga ba na tsa me.

  ga- ba- na tsa me

  NegPre-AgrSubj2-AssCopV PossPart10 PossProP1sg

  They do not have mine.

  Example 48

  Ga ba na tse dintsi.

  ga- ba- na tse di- ntsi

  NegPre-AgrSubj2-AssCopV QualPart10 NPre10-adjective

  They do not have many.

• Inclusion of adjuncts

  As is the case with the inclusion of adjuncts in the VPMAIN, VPIDCOP and VPDESCOP one or more than one phrase that refer to time, locality, manner, instrument and association and an IDEOP or INTERJP can be included in the VPASSCOP. In (54) an ADVP jaanong ‘now’ is included as an adjunct. The basic position regarding the adjuncts in the VPMAIN, VPIDCOP and VPDESCOP applies to the VPASSCOP.

  Example 49

  Ba na le dijô jaanong.

  ba- na le di- j- o jaanong

  AgrSubj2-AssCopV AssPart NPre10-eat-DevSuf Adv

  They now have food.

Minimal structure

The VP with an auxiliary verb (VPAUX) is constructed with an auxiliary verb and a compulsory verbal complement. The complement can be a minimal or complex structure of a VPMAIN (55), a VPIDCOP (56), a VPDESCOP (57), a VPASSCOP (58) or another VPAUX (59). The complement expresses the main action or event (Krüger, 2013b: 191). In a VPAUX the auxiliary verb must agree with the subject regarding class or person, and number. This agreement is established by the subject agreement morpheme.

The SVO and SVOX word orders are characteristic of most Bantu languages (Watters, 2000: 196-201). Setswana is typically classified as an SVO language (Cole, 1955: 426; Krüger, 2006: 11-12) or if an adjunct is included in a sentence, the order is SVOX where X indicates the adjunct. For purposes of emphasis, the order can be altered. The subject can appear post verbally (Zerbian, 2006: 361) and the object may also be placed at the beginning of a sentence (Cole, 1955: 428). Some adjuncts that usually appear at the end of a sentence can also be moved to the beginning of the sentence to emphasise the specific place, time, manner, instrument or association.

Berg (2018: 143-144) presents the following summary of the order of the constituents in a VPMAIN:

• main verb, direct object
• main verb, direct object, locative oblique
• main verb, direct object, associative oblique
• main verb, indirect object, direct object
• main verb, indirect object, direct object, locative oblique
• main verb, locative oblique
• main verb, associative oblique

In the VPIDCOP, VPDESCOP and VPASSCOP the specific copulative verb is followed by its complement. In the VPAUX, the auxiliary verb is followed by a VPMAIN, one of the copulative verb phrases or another VPAUX.

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