Pronouns and pronoun phrases

The Setswana pronoun phrase (PROP) can be structured with a single word or a word group consisting of a pronoun followed by a modifier (qualificative, qualifier or adjunct) (Berg, 2018: 108-110). A fixed number of pronouns appear in Setswana (Krüger, 2006: 127-144), i.e., personal pronouns and the different types of pronouns for the noun classes (absolute, demonstrative, quantitative and possessive pronouns).

To follow the characterisation of pronouns, the internal structure of the PROP and the syntactic functions of the PROP are presented.

Characterisation of pronouns

Setswana pronouns are divided into personal pronouns and the pronouns that agree with the noun classes.

The personal pronouns are those for the:

• first person (nna ‘I’ and rona ‘we’),
• second person (wena ‘you (singular)’ and lona ‘you (plural)’), and
• third person (ênê ‘he/she’ and bônê ‘they’).

Some of the personal pronouns have corresponding possessive pronouns (indicating ordinary or communal possession) as well as corresponding quantitative pronouns (inclusive, exclusive, selective, separative and interrogative) (Cole, 1955: 154-158, 163-164; Krüger: 2006: 141).

The pronouns that are distinguished for the noun classes are:

• absolute pronouns (Krüger, 2006: 131),
• demonstrative pronouns (Krüger, 2006: 134-135),
• quantitative pronouns (inclusive, exclusive, selective, separative and interrogative) (Cole, 1955: 154-158; Krüger: 2006: 137-139), and
• possessive pronouns (Krüger, 2006: 145; Cole, 1955: 163-164).

A PROP can be constructed with a word or a word group. The minimal structure is only a single pronoun which is the head. The word group consists of a pronoun which is the head followed by a modifier.

The pronoun phrase constructed with only a pronoun

A PROP can consist of only a head. This head can be a personal pronoun, an absolute pronoun, a demonstrative pronoun, an inclusive quantitative pronoun, an exclusive quantitative pronoun, a selective quantitative pronoun, a separative quantitative pronoun or an interrogative quantitative pronoun. For example, in (1) the PROP consists of the inclusive quantitative pronoun rôtlhé ‘all of us’.

The phrase structure rule for the PROP in (1) is:

• PROP → IncQPro

The following tree diagram represents the constituent structure of the PROP in (1).

[click image to enlarge]

The PROP can also be constructed with a pronoun group and in this instance, the pronoun group consists of a head pronoun followed by one or more than one modifier (Krüger, 2013) also refers to a pronoun group as a pronominal group.) The head pronoun is the antecedent and the modifier (qualifier) is a word or word group that describes the head pronoun. For example, in (2) the PROP consists of a personal pronoun ênê ‘he/she’ and the qualificative particle phrase yo mogolo ‘which is big’.

The phrase structure rule for the sentence PROP in (2) is:

• PROP → perspro QUALPARTP

The following tree diagram represents the constituent structure of the PROP in (2).

[click image to enlarge]

To follow an exposition of the possible modifiers of pronouns is presented, the word order followed and the agreement phenomena that govern the structure of PROP (PROP internal agreement) are also clarified.

A PROP may be constructed with a personal pronoun followed by an inclusive, exclusive, selective, separative and interrogative quantitative pronoun or by an adverb phrase, a possessive particle phrase or a qualificative particle phrase.

• Personal pronoun modified with an inclusive quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head personal pronoun followed by an inclusive quantitative pronoun as modifier. The inclusive quantitative pronoun shows agreement with the preceding personal pronoun:

  Example 3

  rona rôtlhê

  rona rôtlhê

  PersProP1pl IncQProP1pl

  us all, we all

• Personal pronoun modified with a selective quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head personal pronoun followed by a selective quantitative pronoun as modifier. The selective quantitative pronoun shows agreement with the preceding personal pronoun:

  Example 4

  bônê bôsi

  bônê bôsi

  PersProP3pl SelQProP3pl

  only they

• Personal pronoun modified with a separative quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head personal pronoun followed by a separative quantitative pronoun as modifier. The separative quantitative pronoun shows agreement with the preceding personal pronoun:

  Example 5

  bônê basele

  bônê basele

  PersProP3pl SepQProP3pl

  the unknown ones

• Personal pronoun modified with an interrogative quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head personal pronoun followed by an interrogative quantitative pronoun as modifier. The interrogative quantitative pronoun shows agreement with the preceding personal pronoun:

  Example 6

  bônê bafe?

  bônê bafe

  PersProP3pl IntQProP3pl

  which ones? them who?

• Personal pronoun modified with an adverb phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head personal pronoun followed by an adverb phrase as modifier. There is no agreement between the personal pronoun and the ADVP:

  Example 7

  nna fela

  nna fela

  PersProP1sg Adv

  only me, only I

• Personal pronoun modified with a possessive particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head personal pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase as modifier. The possessive particle as head of the possessive particle phrase must agree with the person and number of the preceding personal pronoun:

  Example 8

  bônê ba me

  bônê ba me

  PersProP3pl PossPartP3pl PossProP1sg

  my ones, mine

• Personal pronoun modified with a qualificative particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head personal pronoun followed by a qualificative particle phrase as modifier. The qualificative particle as head of the qualificative particle phrase must agree with the person and number of the preceding personal pronoun:

  Example 9

  ênê yo mogolo

  ênê yo mogolo

  PersProP3sg QualPartP3sg NPre1-adjective

  the (specific) big one

A PROP may be constructed with an absolute pronoun followed by a demonstrative pronoun, an inclusive quantitative pronoun, a selective quantitative pronoun, a separative quantitative pronoun, a possessive particle phrase and a qualificative particle phrase.

• Absolute pronoun modified with a demonstrative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head absolute pronoun followed by a demonstrative pronoun as modifier. The class of the demonstrative pronoun must agree with the class of the absolute pronoun:

  Example 10

  tsone tse

  tsone tse

  AbsPro10 DemPro10D1

  these ones

• Absolute pronoun modified with an inclusive quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head absolute pronoun followed by an inclusive quantitative pronoun as modifier. The class of the inclusive quantitative pronoun must agree with the class of the absolute pronoun:

  Example 11

  gone gotlhe

  gone gotlhe

  AbsPro16 IncQPro16

  the whole place

• Absolute pronoun modified with a selective quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head absolute pronoun followed by a selective quantitative pronoun as modifier. The class of the selective quantitative pronoun must agree with the class of the absolute pronoun:

  Example 12

  tsone tsosi

  tsone tsosi

  AbsPro10 SelQPro10

  only them

• Absolute pronoun modified with a separative quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head absolute pronoun followed by a separative quantitative pronoun as modifier. The class of the separative quantitative pronoun must agree with the class of the absolute pronoun:

  Example 13

  bone basele

  bone ba-sele

  AbsPro2 SepQPro2

  the other ones

• Absolute pronoun modified with a possessive particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head absolute pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase as modifier. The class of the possessive particle must agree with the class of the absolute pronoun:

  Example 14

  bone ba me

  bone ba me

  AbsPro2 PossPart2 PosProP1sg

  my ones, (the very ones of) mine

• Absolute pronoun modified with a qualificative particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head absolute pronoun followed by a qualificative particle phrase as modifier. The class of the qualificative particle must agree with the class of the absolute pronoun:

  Example 15

  sone se segolo

  sone se se- golo

  AbsPro7 QualPart7 NPre7-big

  the (specific) big one

A PROP may be constructed with a demonstrative pronoun followed by a modifying inclusive quantitative pronoun, a selective quantitative pronoun, a separative quantitative pronoun, a possessive particle phrase and a qualificative particle phrase.

• Demonstrative pronoun modified with an inclusive quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head absolute pronoun followed by an inclusive quantitative pronoun as modifier. The class of the inclusive quantitative pronoun must agree with the class of the demonstrative pronoun:

  Example 16

  bao botlhe

  bao botlhe

  DemPro2 IncQPro2

  all (of) those, all (of) them

• Demonstrative pronoun modified with a selective quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head absolute pronoun followed by a selective quantitative pronoun as modifier. The class of the selective quantitative pronoun must agree with the class of the demonstrative pronoun:

  Example 17

  tse tsosi

  tse tsosi

  DemPro10 SelQPro10

  only these

• Demonstrative pronoun modified with a separative quantitative pronoun

  A PROP can consist of a head absolute pronoun followed by a separative quantitative pronoun as modifier. The class of the separative quantitative pronoun must agree with the class of the demonstrative pronoun:

  Example 18

  tseo disele

  tseo di-sele

  DemPro10 SepQPro10

  those other ones, those unknown ones

• Demonstrative pronoun modified with a possessive particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head demonstrative absolute pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase as modifier. The class of the possessive particle must agree with the class of the demonstrative pronoun:

  Example 19

  tseo tsa me

  tseo tsa me

  DemPro10 PossPart10 PossProP1sg

  those of mine

• Demonstrative pronoun modified with a qualificative particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head demonstrative absolute pronoun followed by a qualificative particle phrase as modifier. The class of the qualificative particle must agree with the class of the demonstrative pronoun:

  Example 20

  bao ba bagolo

  bao ba ba- golo

  DemPro2 QualPart2 NPre2-big

  those big ones

A PROP may be constructed with an inclusive quantitative pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase and a qualificative particle phrase.

• Inclusive quantitative pronoun modified with a possessive particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head inclusive quantitative pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase as modifier. The class of the possessive particle must agree with the class of the inclusive quantitative pronoun:

  Example 21

  tsotlhe tsa me

  tsotlhe tsa me

  AbsPro10 PossPart10 PossProP1sg

  all mine

• Inclusive quantitative pronoun modified with a qualificative particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head inclusive quantitative pronoun followed by a qualificative particle phrase as modifier. The class of the qualificative particle must agree with the class of the inclusive quantitative pronoun:

  Example 22

  botlhe ba bagolo

  botlhe ba ba-golo

  AbsPro2 QualPart2 NPre2-big

  all the big ones, all the grown up ones, all the old ones

A PROP may be constructed with an exclusive quantitative pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase and a qualificative particle phrase.

• Exclusive quantitative pronoun modified with a possessive particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head exclusive quantitative pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase as modifier. The class of the possessive particle must agree with the class of the exclusive quantitative pronoun:

  Example 23

  dipe tsa me

  dipe tsa me

  ExcQPro10 PossPart10 PossProP1sg

  none of mine

• Exclusive quantitative pronoun modified with a qualificative particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head exclusive quantitative pronoun followed by a qualificative particle phrase as modifier. The class of the qualificative particle must agree with the class of the exclusive quantitative pronoun:

  Example 24

  dipe tse di leng monate

  dipe tse di- le- ng mo- nate

  ExcQPro10 QualPart10 AgrSubj10-DefCopV-RelSuf NPre3-nice

  nothing nice, no nice ones

A PROP may be constructed with a separative quantitative pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase.

• Separative quantitative pronoun modified with a possessive particle phrase

  A PROP can consist of a head separative quantitative pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase as modifier. The class of the possessive particle must agree with the class of the separative quantitative pronoun:

  Example 25

  disele tsa me

  di-sele tsa me

  SepQPro10 PossPart10 PersProP1sg

  my other ones, my other things, the different ones of me

A PROP may be constructed with a interrogative quantitative pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase.

• Interrogative quantitative pronoun modified with a possessive particle phrase

A PROP can consist of a head interrogative quantitative pronoun followed by a possessive particle phrase as modifier. The class of the possessive particle must agree with the class of the interrogative quantitative pronoun:

The external syntax of PROPs is concerned with the use and function of a PROP in larger constructions. To follow an exposition is presented of possible functions the PROPs may have.

Subject

In a sentence a PROP may be directly or indirectly involved in the execution of the action or process implied by the verb and therefore function as the subject in a sentence. It can function as the subject of a phrase with a main verb as head (VP), an identifying copulative verb phrase (VPIDCOPV), a describing copulative verb phrase (VPDESCOPV), an associative copulative verb phrase (VPASSCOPV) or an auxiliary verb phrase (VPAUX).

• Subject of verb phrase with a main verb

  The subject can be followed by a VP where the head of this phrase is a main verb:

  Example 27

  Bone ba a tshameka.

  bone ba- a- tshamek-a

  AbsPro2 AgrSubj2-PresPre-play- VEnd

  They are playing.

• Subject of predicate consisting of an identifying copulative verb phrase

  The subject can be followed by a VPIDCOPV where the head of this phrase is an identifying copulative verb:

  Example 28

  Ênê ke kgosi.

  ênê ke (ne-)-kgosi

  AbsPro1 IdCopV NPre9-chief

  He is the chief.

• Subject of predicate consisting of a describing copulative verb phrase

  The subject can be followed by a VPDESCOPV where the head of this phrase is a describing copulative verb:

  Example 29

  Ênê o mogolo.

  ênê o mo- golo

  AbsPro1 DesCopV1 NPre1-adjective

  He/she is big.

• Subject of predicate consisting of an associate copulative verb phrase

  The subject can be followed by a VPASSCOPV where the head of this phrase is an associative copulative verb:

  Example 30

  Bone ba na le dijô.

  bone ba- na le di- j- o

  AbsPro2 AgrSubj2-AssCopV AssPart NPre10-eat-DevSuf

  They have food.

• Subject of predicate consisting of an auxiliary verb phrase

  The subject can be followed by a VPAUX. The head of this phrase is an auxiliary verb:

  Example 31

  Ênê o ne a reka dijô.

  ênê o- ne a- rek-a di- j- ô

  AbsPro1 AgrSubj1-Aux AgrSubj1-buy-VEnd NPre10-eat-DevSuf

  He/she was buying food.

Direct object

A PROP can function as a direct object in a sentence except for the exclusive quantitative pronouns and the “pronouns of the locative classes, however, have a very restricted function as objects” (Krüger, 2013: 75). If a personal pronoun is used as an object in a sentence, it is common to rather use the corresponding object agreement morpheme. The PROP consists of an absolute pronoun tsône and the inclusive quantitative pronoun tsôtlhê:

Indirect object

As is the case with direct objects the PROP (except for the exclusive quantitative pronoun) can function as an indirect object in a sentence. The PROP is the IncQPro bôtlhê:

Complement of possessive particle

The PROP can function as a complement of a possessive particle in a POSSPARTP. The PROP is the possessive pronoun gagwe ‘his/her’:

Complement of instrumental particle

The PROP can function as a complement of an instrumental particle in an INSTRPARTP. In (35) below the PROP is the demonstrative pronoun absolute pronoun ê ‘this one’:

Complement of locative particles

The PROP function as the complement of some of the locative particles in a LOCPARTP. The complements of the locative particles go ‘to’ or ga ‘at someone’s place, at, to’ can be a personal or absolute pronoun. The complement of the locative particle go ‘to’ is the personal pronoun ênê ‘he/she’:

The complement of the locative particle ga ‘to’ is a PROP that consists of the personal pronoun ênê ‘he/she’:

Complement of agentative particle

The agentative particle ke conveys the meaning of ‘by’ in passive sentences and may be followed by an PROP as complement. The complement of the agentative particle ke ‘by’ is a PROP that consists of the personal pronoun ênê ‘he/she’:

Complement of associative particle

The associative particle le ‘with’ functions as the head of an associative particle phrase (ASSPARTP) and may be followed by an PROP as complement. The associative particle is followed by a personal pronoun ênê ‘he/she’:

Complement of comparative particle

The comparative particle jaaka has the meaning of ‘like’ or ‘similar to’ (Krüger, 2006: 149). The complement of the comparative particle jaaka ‘like’ is a PROP that consists of personal pronoun bônê ‘them’:

Complement of identifying copulative verb

A VPIDCOPV consists of an identifying copulative verb as head, followed by a non-verbal, non-locative complement. This complement can be an PROP. The complement of the identifying copulative verb ke ‘is’ is a PROP that consists of the demonstrative pronoun tsê ‘these ones’:

Complement of associative copulative verb

A VPASSCOPV consists of an associative copulative verb as head and in the negative it can be followed by a PROP as complement. The complement of the negative associative copulative verb ga ba na ‘they don’t have’ is a PROP that consists of the absolute pronoun yônê ‘it’:

Berg, A. (2018) Computational syntactic analysis of Setswana. Doctoral Thesis. North-West University, Potchefstroom.

Cole, D. T. (1955) An introduction to Tswana grammar. Cape Town: Longman.

Krüger, C. J. H. (2006) Introduction to the morphology of Setswana. München: Lincom.

Krüger, C. J. H. (2013) Setswana syntax: a survey of word group structures. Vol 2. München: Lincom.